1.1 what’s the internet
1.1.1 A Nuts-and-Bolts Description
The Internet is a computer network that interconnects billions of computing devices throughout the world. In Internet jargon, all of these devices are called hosts or end systems.End systems are connected together by a network of communication links and packet switches. The sequence of communication links and packet switches traversed by a packet from the sending end system to the receiving end system is known as a route or path through the network.
1.1.2 A Services Description
We can also describe the Internet from an entirely different angle—namely, as an infrastructure that provides services to applications.
We have just given two descriptions of the Internet; one in terms of its hardware and software components, the other in terms of an infrastructure for providing services to distributed applications.
1.1.3 What Is a Protocol
A protocol defines the format and the order of messages exchanged between two or more communicating entities, as well as the actions taken on the transmission and/or receipt of a message or other event.
A network protocol is similar to a human protocol, except that the entities exchanging messages and taking actions are hardware or software components of some device (for example, computer, smartphone, tablet, router, or other network-capable device). All activity in the Internet that involves two or more communicating remote entities is governed by a protocol.
1.2 The Network Edge
Recall from the previous section that in computer networking jargon, the computers and other devices connected to the Internet are often referred to as end systems. They are referred to as end systems because they sit at the edge of the Internet.
1.2.1 Access Networks
The access network is the network that physically connects an end system to the first router (also known as the “edge router”) on a path from the end system to any other distant end system.
Home Access: DSL, Cable, FTTH, Dial-Up, and Satellite
Today, the two most prevalent types of broadband residential access are digital subscriber line (DSL) and cable.
DSL
A residence typically obtains DSL Internet access from the same local telephone company (telco) that provides its wired local phone access. Thus, when DSL is used, a customer’s telco is also its ISP. As shown in the following figure, each customer’s DSL modem uses the existing telephone line (twistedpair copper wire, which we’ll discuss in Section 1.2.2) to exchange data with a digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) located in the telco’s local central office (CO). The home’s DSL modem takes digital data and translates it to highfrequency tones for transmission over telephone wires to the CO; the analog signals from many such houses are translated back into digital format at the DSLAM.
On the customer side, a splitter separates the data and telephone signals arriving to the home and forwards the data signal to the DSL modem. On the telco side, in the CO, the DSLAM separates the data and phone signals and sends the data into the Internet. Hundreds or even thousands of households connect to a single DSLAM.
Cable
While DSL makes use of the telco’s existing local telephone infrastructure, cable Internet access makes use of the cable television company’s existing cable television infrastructure. A residence obtains cable Internet access from the same company that provides its cable television. As illustrated in the following figure, fiber optics connect the cable head end to neighborhood-level junctions, from which traditional coaxial cable is then used to reach individual houses and apartments. Each neighborhood junction typically supports 500 to 5,000 homes. Because both fiber and coaxial cable are employed in this system, it is often referred to as hybrid fiber coax (HFC).
Cable Internet access requires special modems, called cable modems.At the cable head end, the cable modem termination system (CMTS) serves a similar function as the DSL network’s DSLAM—turning the analog signal sent from the cable modems in many downstream homes back into digital format. Cable modems divide the HFC network into two channels, a downstream and an upstream channel.One important characteristic of cable Internet access is that it is a shared broadcast medium. In particular, every packet sent by the head end travels downstream on every link to every home and every packet sent by a home travels on the upstream channel to the head end.
FTTH
As the name suggests, the fiber to the home(FTTH) concept is simple—provide an optical fiber path from the CO directly to the home.More commonly, each fiber leaving the central office is actually shared by many homes; it is not until the fiber gets relatively close to the homes that it is split into individual customer-specific fibers.
Dial-Up and Satellite
In locations where DSL, cable, and FTTH are not available (e.g., in some rural settings), a satellite link can be used to connect a residence to the Internet at speeds of more than 1 Mbps; StarBand and HughesNet are two such satellite access providers. Dial-up access over traditional phone lines is based on the same model as DSL—a home modem connects over a phone line to a modem in the ISP. Compared with DSL and other broadband access networks, dial-up access is excruciatingly slow at 56 kbps.
Access in the Enterprise (and the Home): Ethernet and WiFi
On corporate and university campuses, and increasingly in home settings, a local area network (LAN) is used to connect an end system to the edge router.
Ethernet
Although there are many types of LAN technologies, Ethernet is by far the most prevalent access technology in corporate, university, and home networks. As shown in the following figure, Ethernet users use twisted-pair copper wire to connect to an Ethernet switch. The Ethernet switch, or a network of such interconnected switches, is then in turn connected into the larger Internet.
WIFI
Increasingly, however, people are accessing the Internet wirelessly from laptops, smartphones, tablets, and other “things” (see earlier sidebar on “Internet of Things”). In a wireless LAN setting, wireless users transmit/receive packets to/from an access point that is connected into the enterprise’s network (most likely using wired Ethernet), which in turn is connected to the wired Internet.
1.2.2 Physical Media
Physical media fall into two categories:guided media and unguided media. With guided media, the waves are guided along a solid medium, such as a fiber-optic cable, a twisted-pair copper wire, or a coaxial cable. With unguided media, the waves propagate in the atmosphere and in outer space, such as in a wireless LAN or a digital satellite channel.
Twisted-Pair Copper Wire
The least expensive and most commonly used guided transmission medium is twistedpair copper wire.Twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, each about 1 mm thick, arranged in a regular spiral pattern. The wires are twisted together to reduce the electrical interference from similar pairs close by.
As discussed earlier, twisted pair is also commonly used for residential Internet access. We saw that dial-up modem technology enables access at rates of up to 56 kbps over twisted pair. We also saw that DSL (digital subscriber line) technology has enabled residential users to access the Internet at tens of Mbps over twisted pair (when users live close to the ISP’s central office).
Coaxial Cable
Like twisted pair, coaxial cable consists of two copper conductors, but the two conductors are concentric rather than parallel. With this construction and special insulation and shielding, coaxial cable can achieve high data transmission rates. Coaxial cable is quite common in cable television systems.
Fiber Optics
An optical fiber is a thin, flexible medium that conducts pulses of light, with each pulse representing a bit. A single optical fiber can support tremendous bit rates, up to tens or even hundreds of gigabits per second. They are immune to electromagnetic interference, have very low signal attenuation up to 100 kilometers, and are very hard to tap.
Terrestrial Radio Channels and Satellite Radio Channels
Radio channels carry signals in the electromagnetic spectrum. They are an attractive medium because they require no physical wire to be installed, can penetrate walls, provide connectivity to a mobile user, and can potentially carry a signal for long distances.
1.3 The Network Core
The network core—the mesh of packet switches and links that interconnects the Internet’s end systems.The following figure highlights the network core with thick, shaded lines.
1.3.1 Packet Switching
To send a message from a source end system to a destination end system, the source breaks long messages into smaller chunks of data known as packets. Between source and destination, each packet travels through communication links and packet switches (for which there are two predominant types, routers and link-layer switches).
Store-and-Forward Transmission
Most packet switches use store-and-forward transmission at the inputs to the links. Store-and-forward transmission means that the packet switch must receive the entire packet before it can begin to transmit the first bit of the packet onto the outbound link.
Queuing Delays and Packet Loss
Each packet switch has multiple links attached to it. For each attached link, the packet switch has an output buffer (also called an output queue), which stores packets that the router is about to send into that link. The output buffers play a key role in packet switching. If an arriving packet needs to be transmitted onto a link but finds the link busy with the transmission of another packet, the arriving packet must wait in the output buffer. Thus, in addition to the store-and-forward delays, packets suffer output buffer queuing delays. These delays are variable and depend on the level of congestion in the network.Since the amount of buffer space is finite, an arriving packet may find that the buffer is completely full with other packets waiting for transmission.In this case, packet loss will occur—either the arriving packet or one of the already-queued packets will be dropped.
Forwarding Tables and Routing Protocols
In the Internet, every end system has an address called an IP address. When a source end system wants to send a packet to a destination end system, the source includes the destination’s IP address in the packet’s header. As with postal addresses, this address has a hierarchical structure. When a packet arrives at a router in the network, the router examines a portion of the packet’s destination address and forwards the packet to an adjacent router. More specifically, each router has a forwarding table that maps destination addresses (or portions of the destination addresses) to that router’s outbound links. When a packet arrives at a router, the router examines the address and searches its forwarding table, using this destination address, to find the appropriate outbound link. The router then directs the packet to this outbound link.
How do forwarding tables get set? Are they configured by hand in each and every router, or does the Internet use a more automated procedure? This issue will be studied in depth in Chapter 5. But to whet your appetite here, we’ll note now that the Internet has a number of special routing protocols that are used to automatically set the forwarding tables.A routing protocol may, for example, determine the shortest path from each router to each destination and use the shortest path results to configure the forwarding tables in the routers.
1.3.2 Circuit Switching
In circuit-switched networks, the resources needed along a path (buffers, link transmission rate) to provide for communication between the end systems are reserved for the duration of the communication session between the end systems.
As a simple analogy, consider two restaurants, one that requires reservations and another that neither requires reservations nor accepts them. For the restaurant that requires reservations, we have to go through
the hassle of calling before we leave home. But when we arrive at the restaurant we can, in principle, immediately be seated and order our meal. For the restaurant that does not require reservations, we don’t need to bother to reserve a table. But when we arrive at the restaurant, we may have to wait for a table before we can be seated.
Multiplexing in Circuit-Switched Networks
A circuit in a link is implemented with either frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) or time-division multiplexing (TDM).
With FDM, the frequency spectrum of a link is divided up among the connections established across the link. Specifically, the link dedicates a frequency band to each connection for the duration of the connection.For a TDM link, time is divided into frames of fixed duration, and each frame is divided into a fixed number of time slots. When the network establishes a connection across a link, the network dedicates one time slot in every frame to this connection.
1.3.3 A Network of Networks
Today’s Internet—a network of networks—is complex, consisting of a dozen or so tier-1 ISPs and hundreds of thousands of lower-tier ISPs. The ISPs are diverse in their coverage, with some spanning multiple continents and oceans, and others limited to narrow geographic regions. The lower-tier ISPs connect to the higher-tier ISPs, and the higher-tier ISPs interconnect with one another. Users and content providers are customers of lower-tier ISPs, and lower-tier ISPs are customers of higher-tier ISPs. In recent years, major content providers have also created their own networks and connect directly into lower-tier ISPs where possible.
1.4 Delay in Packet-Switched Networks
1.4.1 Overview of Delay in Packet-Switched Networks
Types of Delay
Processing Delay
The time required to examine the packet’s header and determine where to direct the packet is part of the processing delay. The processing delay can also include other factors, such as the time needed to check for bit-level errors in the packet that occurred in transmitting the packet’s bits from the upstream node to router A. Processing delays in high-speed routers are typically on the order of microseconds or less. After this nodal processing, the router directs the packet to the queue that precedes the link to router B.
Queuing Delay
At the queue, the packet experiences a queuing delay as it waits to be transmitted onto the link. The length of the queuing delay of a specific packet will depend on the number of earlier-arriving packets that are queued and waiting for transmission onto the link. If the queue is empty and no other packet is currently being transmitted, then our packet’s queuing delay will be zero. On the other hand, if the traffic is heavy and many other packets are also waiting to be transmitted, the queuing delay will be long. We will see shortly that the number of packets that an arriving packet might expect to find is a function of the intensity and nature of the traffic arriving at the queue. Queuing delays can be on the order of microseconds to milliseconds in practice.
Transmission Delay
Assuming that packets are transmitted in a first-come-first-served manner, as is common in packet-switched networks, our packet can be transmitted only after all the packets that have arrived before it have been transmitted. Denote the length of the packet by L bits, and denote the transmission rate of the link from router A to router B by R bits/sec. For example, for a 10 Mbps Ethernet link, the rate is R = 10 Mbps; for a 100 Mbps Ethernet link, the rate is R = 100 Mbps. The transmission delay is L/R. This is the amount of time required to push (that is, transmit) all of the packet’s bits into the link. Transmission delays are typically on the order of microseconds to milliseconds in practice.
Propagation Delay
Once a bit is pushed into the link, it needs to propagate to router B. The time required to propagate from the beginning of the link to router B is the propagation delay.
1.4.2 End-to-End Delay
Our discussion up to this point has focused on the nodal delay, that is, the delay at a single router. Let’s now consider the total delay from source to destination. To get a handle on this concept, suppose there are N - 1 routers between the source host and the destination host. Let’s also suppose for the moment that the network is uncongested (so that queuing delays are negligible), the processing delay at each router and at the source host is , the transmission rate out of each router and out of the source host is R bits/sec, and the propagation on each link is . The nodal delays accumulate and give an end-to-end delay,
1.5 Protocol Layers and Their Service Models
A layered architecture allows us to discuss a well-defined, specific part of a large and complex system. This simplification itself is of considerable value by providing modularity, making it much easier to change the implementation of the service provided by the layer. As long as the layer provides the same service to the layer above it, and uses the same services from the layer below it, the remainder of the system remains unchanged when a layer’s implementation is changed. For large and complex systems that are constantly being updated, the ability to change the implementation of a service without affecting other components of the system is another important advantage of layering.
Protocol Layering
Application Layer
An application-layer protocol is distributed over multiple end systems, with the application in one end system using the protocol to exchange packets of information with the application in another end system. We’ll refer to this packet of information at the application layer as a message.
Transport Layer
The Internet’s transport layer transports application-layer messages between application endpoints. In the Internet there are two transport protocols, TCP and UDP, either of which can transport application-layer messages. TCP provides a connection-oriented service to its applications. This service includes guaranteed delivery of applicationlayer messages to the destination and flow control (that is, sender/receiver speed matching). TCP also breaks long messages into shorter segments and provides a congestion-control mechanism, so that a source throttles its transmission rate when the network is congested. The UDP protocol provides a connectionless service to its applications. This is a no-frills service that provides no reliability, no flow control, and no congestion control. In this book, we’ll refer to a transport-layer packet as a segment.
Network Layer
The Internet’s network layer is responsible for moving network-layer packets known as datagrams from one host to another. The Internet transport-layer protocol (TCP or UDP) in a source host passes a transport-layer segment and a destination address to the network layer, just as you would give the postal service a letter with a destination address. The network layer then provides the service of delivering the segment to the transport layer in the destination host.The Internet’s network layer includes the celebrated IP protocol, which defines the fields in the datagram as well as how the end systems and routers act on these fields. There is only one IP protocol, and all Internet components that have a network layer must run the IP protocol. The Internet’s network layer also contains routing protocols that determine the routes that datagrams take between sources and destinations. The Internet has many routing protocols. As we saw in Section 1.3, the Internet is a network of networks, and within a network, the network administrator can run any routing protocol desired. Although the network layer contains both the IP protocol and numerous routing protocols, it is often simply referred to as the IP layer, reflecting the fact that IP is the glue that binds the Internet together.
Link Layer
The Internet’s network layer routes a datagram through a series of routers between the source and destination. To move a packet from one node (host or router) to the next node in the route, the network layer relies on the services of the link layer. In particular, at each node, the network layer passes the datagram down to the link layer, which delivers the datagram to the next node along the route. At this next node, the link layer passes the datagram up to the network layer.The services provided by the link layer depend on the specific link-layer protocol that is employed over the link. For example, some link-layer protocols provide reliable delivery, from transmitting node, over one link, to receiving node. Note that this reliable delivery service is different from the reliable delivery service of TCP, which provides reliable delivery from one end system to another. Examples of linklayer protocols include Ethernet, WiFi, and the cable access network’s DOCSIS protocol. As datagrams typically need to traverse several links to travel from source to destination, a datagram may be handled by different link-layer protocols at different links along its route. For example, a datagram may be handled by Ethernet on one link and by PPP on the next link. The network layer will receive a different service from each of the different link-layer protocols. In this book, we’ll refer to the linklayer packets as frames.
Physical Layer
While the job of the link layer is to move entire frames from one network element to an adjacent network element, the job of the physical layer is to move the individual bits within the frame from one node to the next. The protocols in this layer are again link dependent and further depend on the actual transmission medium of the link (for example, twisted-pair copper wire, single-mode fiber optics). For example, Ethernet has many physical-layer protocols: one for twisted-pair copper wire, another for coaxial cable, another for fiber, and so on. In each case, a bit is moved across the link in a different way.
The OSI Model
Let’s consider the two additional layers present in the OSI reference model—the presentation layer and the session layer. The role of the presentation layer is to provide services that allow communicating applications to interpret the meaning of data exchanged. These services include data compression and data encryption (which are self-explanatory) as well as data description (which frees the applications from having to worry about the internal format in which data are represented/stored—formats that may differ from one computer to another). The session layer provides for delimiting and synchronization of data exchange, including the means to build a checkpointing and recovery scheme.
1.5.2 Encapsulation
The following figure shows the physical path that data takes down a sending end system’s protocol stack, up and down the protocol stacks of an intervening link-layer switch and router, and then up the protocol stack at the receiving end system.
1.6 Networks Under Attack
- The Bad Guys Can Put Malware into Your Host Via the Internet
- The Bad Guys Can Attack Servers and Network Infrastructure
- Vulnerability attack
- Bandwidth flooding
- Connection flooding
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- The Bad Guys Can Sniff Packets
- The Bad Guys Can Masquerade as Someone You Trust
1.7 History of Computer Networking and the Internet
- The Development of Packet Switching: 1961–1972
- Proprietary Networks and Internetworking: 1972–1980
- A Proliferation of Networks: 1980–1990
- The Internet Explosion: The 1990s
- The New Millennium