寫英文文章經常要重複講一個說法講幾次，但描述方式不能太祥林嫂，所以備好一些常用句式還是相當有用的。以下的句式是本人在閱讀文獻過程中親自整理的，主要來源於Science，Nature，Immunity，JEM，JCI和JI。這些句式都很地道，決不山寨，希望對有需要的朋友有用。
熱點，廣泛關注、研究
1．Themechanisms governing the homeostasis of memory T cells have been anarea of intense investigation.
2．Extensivework has been done in the area of cytokine signaling.
3．Notunexpectedly, the newest ‘lineage’ of helper T cells, TH-17cells, also received a great deal of attention at the Ringbergmeeting.
4. While the interactions of DC withnaive T cells within LN have been analysed in detail,…
5. While interactions of DC with naiveT cells in LN have been extensively examined by 2P-IVM,
6. Although the signals that controlneutrophil migration from the blood to sites of infection have beenwell characterized, little is known about their migration patternswithin lymph nodes or the strategies that neutrophils use to findtheir local sites of action.
不像B，which…，A…
1. Unlike naive T cells, which survivelargely in interphase, memory T cells persist under normal conditionswith a slow but constant turnover.
像…一樣
1．Aswith naive T cells, memory T cells are also capable of undergoingmore rapid cell division under lymphopenic conditions, known as acute
homeostatic proliferation.
…已有共識
1．Thereis now a general consensus that two members of the common γ chaincytokine family, namely IL-7 and IL-15, control the homeostasis ofCD8+
memory cells
…仍不清楚
1. However, the factors that govern thehomeostasis of CD4+ memory cells have yet to be fully defined.
2. Although molecular details of theprocess are poorly understood.
3. Although why this subset of T cellsis uniquely sensitive to IL-2 is currently unclear.
4. experiments directly interrogatingthe physiological requirements
for DC-produced IL-2 have yet to bepublished.
5. Among the questions that remain tobe resolved arehow IL-2 may play both supportive and restrictiveroles in the same transgenic OT-1 CD8+ T cells.
6. The cause of this disease has beenelusive because the SAP gene is not affected in XLP 2 patients.
7．Themain source of IL-17 at the local site of inflammation still remainsunknown.
8. Whether such a mechanism is relevantto CD4+ T helper cells remains an open issue.
9. Whether the failure to silence TRAILsynthesis upon rechallenge explains this example of AICD remains tobe investigated.
10. Whether the receiving cell mustmake contact with the producing cell or whether there is a role forsoluble IL-15/IL-15Rα complexes in CD8+ memory T cell homeostasis isnot clear.
11. But the question of whether theyneed tonic signals via their TCR is still open.
12. Exactly what CD4+ T cells provideto maintain CD8+ T cell memory remains a mystery.
13． Largequestions remain as to how chemokine signaling regulates or isregulated to coordinate the complex in vivo dynamics of the Tlymphocytes。
14. However, what has not beendelineated is the response of effector T cells at nonlymphoid tissuesites when they reencounter Ag.
15. The precise role of IL-2 in theregulation of CD8 T cell responses to foreign Ag in vivo howeverremains enigmatic.
16．Ourunderstanding of the developmentalcontrol of V(D)J recombination onthe one hand, and that of cell proliferation, death, and survivalduring differentiationon the other, is still fragmentary.
…已經得到公認
1．Itis well accepted that two cytokines, namely IL-7 and IL-15, areinvolved in maintaining the numbers of CD8 memory cells in vivo(145–147).
與…相似
1．Inaddition, there is a high-affinity receptor for IL-15, referred to asIL-15Rα, and it was thought, in analogy with the IL-2R, that athree-chain complex, αβγ, was the receptor for IL-15 on NK cellsand memory CD8+ T cells.
仍存在爭議
1．Itwas clear that there is no shortage of controversy.
可以肯定地說
1．Itis safe to say, in fact, that there is a long way to Go before thefield fully understands the process of effector and memory celldifferentiation, the relationships among these post-activation cellfates and the extent to which any given T cell adopts a fixed versusa flexible functional program after antigen activation.
2. There is no doubt immunologicalresearch has been boosted by the
recent application of 2P-IVM
依賴、需要
1．Ag-specific memory CD8+ cells, on the other hand, are less dependent on IL-15,relying more on IL-7, but still require IL-15 for basal homeostaticproliferation and long-term maintenance
2．Furthermore,robust CD8 recall responses appear to be particularly reliant on CD8costimulation via 4-1BB.
A與B之間的差異
1．Thediscrepancy in the homeostatic requirements for Ag-specifi c memoryversus MP cells appears even greater for CD4+ than CD8+ cells.
與…一致,相符
1．Consistentwith this notion, recent studies have shown that IL-7 is essentialfor the survival and basal homeostatic turnover of Ag-specificCD4+memory cells.
2. Similarly broad expression of IL-2and IL-15 receptors do not coincide well with the highly restrictedroles that IL-2 and IL-15 appear to play in thymic development.
3．Thedistinct functions of IL-2, IL-15, and IL-7 signals in naive T cellhomeostasis correspond well with the expression patterns of thevarious receptor chains.
4. A comparison of wild-type andCD25?/? CD8+ T cells side by side in a mixed radiation chimerafollowing LCMV or Listeria infection revealed that the knockout cellscould divide as fast as wild-type cells and accumulate to largenumbers of effectors (54), in line with previous findings.
5． Theseexperiments are also in agreement with physiological studies showingthat T cells activated by soluble peptide in vivo are not committedto tolerance after 3 d
6. Results presented in this work donot contradict this hypothesis, but suggest that in addition to itsfunction as a “T cell graveyard,” the liver may play a role inprimary activation of CD81 T cells specific for Ags presented withinthe liver, including peptides delivered by the i.v. route.
被迫
1．Theseeffector T cells undergo a dramatic contraction in numbers afterantigen clearance, with 90 – 95% succumbing to apoptosis within
weeks.
與…相反,相反地…
1. In contrast to CD8 memory T cells,CD4 memory T cells may not require the signals through commoncytokine receptor chain.
2. By contrast, IL-2 signaling may playa major role in the differentiation of regulatory T cells
3. Contrary to T-cell recognition ofpeptides processed and presented on MHC molecules by DC,immunoglobulin receptors on B cells recognize intact protein antigensin their native state.
參與了
1. The polycomb group (PcG) gene Bmi1has recently been implicated in the maintenance of hematopoietic…
2. an intrinsic histone H3-K27methyltransferase activity, which implicates a likely mechanism forPcG-mediated gene silencing.
本課題研究了…在…的作用
1. We herein investigated the role ofBmi1 in the generation and maintenance of memory CD4 + Th1/Th2 cells.
研究(清楚)表明…
1. Our results indicate that Bmi1controls memory CD4 T cell survival and function through the directrepression of the Noxa gene.
2. However, follow-up studies have notrevealed an obvious defect in thymic selection
3. Multiple in vitro studiesdemonstrate that T cell activation depends on the presence of IL-2.
4. The results conclusivelydemonstrated that IL-2 was dispensable
as a growth factor for antiviral CD8 Tcells in secondary lymphoid
tissues
在…方面缺乏讓人信服的證據
1．Compellingevidence in this regard is currently lacking.
與…相比
1. Although the expression levels ofIL-7R _ and IL-2R _ were slightly lower on Bmi1 _ / _ memory Th2cells as compared with wild-type cells.
靜脈過繼轉移到…
1. (A andBmi1 +/+ , Bmi1 +/ _ , or Bmi1_ / _ effector Th2 (A) or Th1 (cells with DO11.10 Tg background wereintravenously transferred into BALB/c nu/nu mice.
大量的證據表明…
1．Hence,despite a plethora of in vitro evidence showing that IL-2 wascritical for supporting T cell activation, the dominant physiologicalfunction of IL-2 signals in vivo is to restrain T cell activation andprevent autoimmunity.
A對B很重要
1．IL-2is clearly essential/critical for Treg differentiation.
2．Thenon-homologous DNA end-joining (NHEJ) pathway has an essential rolein joining double-strand breaks (DSBs) generated by the RAG proteinsduring V(D)J recombination;
3. CD4+ T cells play an essential rolein promoting the initial expansion of CD8+ T cells responding toinitial antigen challenge when antigen comes from a relativelynoninflammatory immunogen.
4. One attractive possibility is thatthe subset of endogenously activated CD4+ T cells that express lowlevels of CD25 and make numerous cytokines are key to maintainingCD8+ memory T cells.
5．DCsare central to the priming of both primary and secondary CD8+ T cellresponses.
6. Our results therefore suggest thatTLRs can play a crucial role in shaping the development of theadaptive immune system.
引出…問題
1．Theseresults raise the question of the extent to which the suppressiveactions of TGF-β and IL-27 are mediated by their capacity to promoteIL-10 production by other cells.
2．Theobservation that CD8+ T cell differentiation is programmed after arelatively short exposure to antigen has brought into question thenature of CD8+ T cell–DC interactions in vivo.
3．Theexpression of AID in developing B cells in both mutant and normalmice (Maoet al., 2004) raises questions regarding the mechanism ofAID induction at these early stages of B cell development.
不奇怪地，可以預期地
1．Notunexpectedly, the newest ‘lineage’ of helper T cells, TH-17cells, also received a great deal of attention at the Ringbergmeeting.
2. As expected, RAG-2 expression isdetected only in pre-B and immature B cells, validating ourcell-purification procedure.
面對嚴峻的挑戰
1．Thequestion then became how to tackle such a daunting challenge.
除了…以外
1．Asidefrom CD28, perhaps the best described CD8-specific costimulatorymolecule is 4-1BB (CD137).
…觀點最近也受到挑戰
1．Theparadigm that SHM is limited to mature B cells has also been recentlychallenged by a report showing that…
爲了研究…我們…
1. To directly address the role of AIDduring B cell development, we have now analyzed the expression of AIDin the BM of normal mice.
…老鼠是…背景的
1． BecauseAicda_/_ mice are on a mixed C57BL/6 and CBA background.
2. These nude mice have a C57BL/6genetic background
有研究指出
1．Previously,it has been reported that about 16% of C57BL/6 immature B cellsexpress AID by single-cell analysis.
2. A previous report had shown AIDexpression, but no SHM of light chain, in immature B cells fromwild-type C57BL/6 mice (Mao et al., 2004).
3. Previous studies have indicated thatB cells expressing rearranged
Vk4 genes are frequently negativelyselected, perhaps because they are autoreactive
爲了證明…
1. In order to ascertain that AIDexpressed in pre-B and immature B cells is active and functional, thepresence of circle transcripts (CTs) and postswitchtranscripts.(PSTs) was assessed in these cells.
2. To confirm that CSR led to properrecombination, we amplified PSTs for
each isotype by using specific primers
爲了進一步證實、驗證、定量…
1. To further determine whether CSR indeveloping B cells led to appropriate cell-surface proteinexpression, we stained BM cells from Aicda+/_ and Aicda_/_ mice andexamined the surface expression of IgA by using FACS.
2. To circumvent this potentialproblem, we performed studies in a model system not requiringinfection.
值得注意的是…
1. It is noteworthy that CT-a exhibittwo transcripts, because of alternative splicing donor sites in theIa exon.
2. It is important to note that severalobservations indicate that small numbers of BM-residing plasma ormemory B cells cannot account for our findings of AID expression inearly B cells.
暗示
1． Thisis reminiscent of the genetic background effects we find for CSR inpre-B and immature B cells in normal mice.
我們的研究爲…提供證據
1．Ourfindings provide evidence that the innate immune system plays animportant role in shaping adaptive immunity at early stages oflymphocyte development.
特別強調
1．Weplace special emphasis on what we see as a hierarchical organizationof lymphoid tissue in support of the cell–cell interactionsunderlying adaptive immune responses
僅僅討論
1．Sohere we limit our discussion to the practical aspects of thesetechniques
提示
1．Seminalwork on two-photon microscopy from the Cyster group shed light on thecentral role of chemokines on distinct events in B cell biology.
把…叫做…
1. In this study, we will refer to theformer cells as CD11b_ dendritic cells and the latter as CD8_dendritic cells.
據我們所知
1．Toour knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating that naive Tcells can undergo primary activation outside lymphoid organs.
綜上所述
1．Viewedin toto, these results indicate that T cells activated in the lymphnodes of Met-Kb mice are mostunlikely to have contributed to theblood T cell pool during the first 2 days after transfer.
2．Takentogether with our previous in vitro data indicating that CD81 T cellscan be directly activated by hepatocytes, but then die by neglect dueto a lack of costimulation
3．Theseobservations collectively demonstrate that dysregulated miR-155 canaffect myeloid or lymphoid development depending on the context ofits expression.
不管
1．Ourfindings indicated that activated CD8 T cells migrated pervasively toall nonlymphoid organs irrespective of the site of initialAgengagement.
2．However,regardless of the tissue of origin, reactivation of transferredmemory cells resulted in widespread dissemination of new effectorcells.
淺談
1．Herewe bring together much of this work, which has so far only scratchedthe surface of this very fertile field of investigation,
使
1．Conditionaldeletion of Dicer in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) renders thesecells unable to reconstitute the hematopoietic system,
可以從…得到證明
1．Theimportance of proper regulation of miR-155 expression is exemplifiedby its much higher expression in several types of hematopoieticmalignancies。
需要進一步的研究…
1．However,further studies are needed to determine the extent to whichphysiologically regulated miR-155 expression directs hematopoieticcell fate ‘decisions’during infection.
適用於
1．Opticalmicroscopy employing fluorescence techniques is highly suited forthis purpose, permitting both labeling of specific cells, organelles,or proteins and functional readout of physiological even...